Paris grapples with the remembrance of terrorist attacks, from 1974 to November 13, 2015

Since 1974, almost 150 terrorist attacks have either taken place in or departed from Paris. The sinister list includes the attacks against the synagogue on Copernic Street (1980), the Jo Goldenberg restaurant on Rosiers Street in the Marais district (1982), the Tati shop in Rennes Street (1986), as well as two bomb explosions on the RER B commuter train at Saint-Michel (1995) and Port-Royal (1996) stations. However, only a few attacks continue to be recollected in urban memory. Why have so many fallen into oblivion? On November 13, 10 years after the terrorist attacks in Paris and its northern suburb of Saint-Denis, the French capital’s mayor will open a garden in tribute to the victims, located on Saint-Gervais Square at the back of city hall. Well-tended and original, the new memorial site comes after the plaques that were placed in front of the targeted locations of the attacks in November 2016. Some of the names of the victims have already been honoured in other spaces. This is the case, for example, of Lola Saline and Ariane Theiller, who used to work in the publishing industry and whose names adorn a plaque in the interior hall of the National Book Centre in the 7th arrondissement. The attacks of November 13 have profoundly transformed the Parisian public space. While commemorative plaques are now more numerous and almost systematic, they also shed light on the memory lapses surrounding most of the terrorist attacks that have taken place in the capital since 1974. Collective memory and oblivion In Paris, there are now more than 15 plaques commemorating the various attacks that have taken place in the city and paying tribute to their victims. Spread across seven arrondissements, they commemorate the attacks of October 3, 1980 against the synagogue on rue Copernic (16th arrondissement); August 9, 1982 against the kosher restaurant Jo Goldenberg on rue des Rosiers (4th arrondissement); September 17, 1986 against the Tati store on rue de Rennes (6th arrondissement); and the two explosions that targeted the RER B commuter train on July 25, 1995 at Saint-Michel station (5th arrondissement) and December 3, 1996 at Port-Royal station (5th arrondissement). The rest of these plaques refer to attacks in January, 2015 (11th and 12th arrondissements), and, above all, November 2015 (10th and 11th arrondissements), with the exception of those commemorating the attack that killed Xavier Jugelé on April 20, 2017 on the Champs-Élysées (8th arrondissement), and the attack that killed Ronan Gosnet on May 12, 2018 on rue Marsollier (2nd arrondissement). Commemorative plaques for the November 13, 2015 attacks. Fourni par l’auteur While demonstrating a desire for commemoration, these examples of urban memory also highlight the real memory gap surrounding most of the terrorist attacks that have occurred in Paris in the contemporary period. How the 1974 attack on the Drugstore Publicis paved the way for modern-day terrorism The French state has designated 1974 as the starting point of contemporary terrorism. Indeed, this year has been retained as the start of the period that the permanent exhibition of the future Terrorism Memorial Museum aims to cover. And the “victims of terrorism”, who stand apart in France through their right to be awarded a special medal, are those affected by attacks that have occurred since 1974. This choice refers to the attack on the Drugstore Publicis Saint-Germain-des-Prés, which took place in Paris (on the Boulevard Saint-Germain, 6th arrondissement) on September 15 of that year. This chronological milestone is, of course, open to debate, as is any temporal division. However, it is taken here as a given. Since 1974, historian Jenny Raflik-Grenouilleau has recorded nearly 150 attacks in Paris or originating in Paris in her preliminary research for the Terrorism Memorial Museum. Of this total, 130 attacks resulted in at least one injury and just over 80 resulted in the death of at least one victim. Depending on where one chooses to draw the line between what is worthy of commemoration – from deaths to property damage alone – there are more than 80 attacks and up to nearly 150 in Paris that could potentially have given rise to a permanent memorial in the public space. The 17 existing plaques therefore concern only a very small minority of the terrorist acts that have taken place in the city. In this respect, the situation in Paris mirrors that described by Kenneth Foote in his pioneering study: plaques are both sources of memory and producers of oblivion. For example, the attack on the Drugstore Publicis Saint-Germain-des-Prés in 1974 left two people dead and thirty-four wounded. Although it is considered the starting point of the contemporary wave of terrorism, there is no plaque to remind passers-by, whether they are Parisians or tourists, many of whom pass through this busy crossroads in the Saint-Germain-des-Prés neighbourhood every day. Selective narratives and invisible perpetrators What do the few plaques in Paris that commemorate attacks there have in common? Firstly, it appears that it is the deadliest attacks that are commemorated, foremost among which, of course, are those of November 13, 2015. All attacks that have claimed at least four lives are commemorated in public spaces. There is only one exception: the bomb attack by a revolutionary brigade in June 1976, which targeted a temporary employment agency to denounce job insecurity. The building’s concierge and her daughter, as well as two residents, were killed. Only two attacks that resulted in a single death are commemorated: these are the most recent ones, which occurred in 2017 and 2018, and whose victims were named above. Furthermore, the existing plaques only refer to attacks carried out by Islamist organisations (Armed Islamic Group, al-Qaida, Daesh, etc.) on the one hand, or attacks claimed in the name of defending the Palestinian cause on the other. In this respect, the existing plaques primarily reflect the infinitely more criminal nature of the attacks carried out by these groups, as well as their majority presence. Nevertheless, they consequently only show two sides of terrorism. Diverse forms of terrorism, but a partial memory And yet, there has been no shortage of variety since 1974. For example, memory of extreme left-wing terrorism and, to a lesser extent, of extreme right-wing terrorism is nowhere to be found in the public space – notwithstanding their importance in the 1970s and 1980s and the many injuries and deaths left in their wake. Take, for example, the 1983 attack carried out by far-right group Action Directe at the restaurant Le Grand Véfour, which left Françoise Rudetzki seriously injured as she was having dinner. The event inspired Rudetzski to found SOS Attentats, an organisation that enabled public authorities to compensate terrorism victims. However, even today, there is not a word about the attack on the walls of the building in question in the 1st arrondissement. The memory gap is all the more puzzling given that the justifications put forward for these invisible attacks have not disappeared. Between July 5 and 21, 1986, Action Directe carried out three successive bomb attacks. The attack on July 9 targeted the police anti-gang squad, killing one officer and injuring 22 others. In their claim, the perpetrators mentioned that they had sought to “avenge” Loïc Lefèvre, a young man killed by a member of the security forces in Paris four days earlier. In October 1988, this time it was Catholic fundamentalists who attacked the Saint-Michel cinema, which was screening Martin Scorsese’s film The Last Temptation of Christ, which they considered blasphemous. The attack injured 14 people. These two examples show how some of the attacks that have remained invisible in the public sphere nonetheless resonate with themes that are still very much present in contemporary public debate, from “police violence” to “freedom of expression”. Finally, no plaque mentions the motivations of the perpetrators of the attack. Whether they were installed in 1989 or 2018, Paris’s plaques either pay tribute to “the victims of terrorism” or commemorate an “act of terrorism”, without further detail. Although, here too, there is an exception to this rule, which in turn allows us to reflect implicitly through a borderline case. The plaques commemorating the 1982 attack on the kosher restaurant Jo Goldenberg and the 2015 attack on the Hyper Casher supermarket on avenue de la Porte de Vincennes are the only ones to add an adjective, in this case “antisemitic”, to the mention of the attack, while the plaque hung on rue Copernic, which was targeted by a bomb in 1980, refers to “the heinous attack perpetrated against this synagogue”, thus specifying the reason for the attack. To date, only antisemitic attacks are named as such. Commemorative plaque for the attack on the Jo Goldenberg restaurant on rue des Rosiers. Fourni par l’auteur Memorial practices in Parisian public spaces Only a tiny fraction of the terrorist acts committed in Paris since 1974 are now marked for passers-by’s attention, producing, thereby, memory as well as oblivion. The question of how these reminders of the past are used in Parisian public spaces remains open. While the issue is not specific to the commemoration of terrorist attacks, it is particularly acute in the case of plaques referring to them, since they refer to an event – “terrorism” – which, unlike a war marked by a beginning and an end, is an ongoing process that is difficult to consider as having ended. In 1996, when the public transport company, the RATP, was asked by the families of the victims of the RER B attack to have their names included on a plaque, it initially expressed its hesitations. It said it feared dangerous crowds on the narrow metro platform. These fears proved unfounded. Very few passengers actually look up to see the plaque. In this respect, the new November 13, 2015 memorial garden creates a form of commemoration that leaves open the possibility of new ways of remembering, combining the uses of an urban park with participation in the preservation of memory. A weekly e-mail in English featuring expertise from scholars and researchers. It provides an introduction to the diversity of research coming out of the continent and considers some of the key issues facing European countries. Get the newsletter!